In journalism Journalism is the production of news reports and editorials through media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the Internet. Journalists—be they writers, editors, photographers, broadcast presenters or producers—serve as the main purveyors of information and opinion in contemporary society, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives information Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.
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Overview
Examples of sources include official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, accidents or other events, and people involved with or affected by a news event or issue. According to Shoemaker (1996) and McQuail (1994) there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists. Reporters A reporter is a type of journalist who researches and presents information in certain types of mass media are expected to develop and cultivate sources. This applies especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a "beat". However, beat reporters must be cautious of becoming too close to their sources. Reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they don't want to talk, and then proceed to talk. If that person is not a public figure, reporters are less likely to use that information. Journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical ("If your mother says she loves you, check it out."). As a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources. Outside journalism, sources are sometimes known as a "news source".
Using confidential information
Off-the-record material is often valuable and reporters may be eager to use it, so sources wishing to ensure the confidentiality of certain information are generally advised to discuss the "terms of use" before actually disclosing the information, if possible. Some journalists and news organizations have policies against accepting information "off the record" because they believe it interferes with their ability to report truthfully, or because they suspect it may be intended to mislead them or the public.
Even if they cannot report certain information directly, journalists can use "off the record" information to uncover related facts, or to find other sources that are willing to speak on the record. This is especially useful in investigative reporting Investigative journalism is a type of reporting in which reporters deeply investigate a topic of interest, often involving crime, political corruption, or some other scandal. Information about a surprise event or breaking news News is the communication of information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, Internet, or word of mouth to a third party or mass audience, whether on or off the record, is known as a "tip-off". Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a "lead".
Anonymous sources
The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organization's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. (Lawyers are generally protected from subpoena A subpoena is commonly defined as a written command to a person to testify before a court or be punished in these cases by attorney/client privilege The policy underlying this privilege is that of encouraging open and honest communication between clients and attorneys, which is thought to promote obedience to law and reduce the chance of illegal behavior, whether intentional or inadvertent. As such, the attorney-client privilege is considered as one of the strongest privileges available under.) Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent, anonymous sources, and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.
The use of anonymous sources has been a controversial subject for many years. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others hold strict prohibitions against the use of unnamed sources at all times.[1] News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed.
Nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O.J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate.[2] Newsweek retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East; the Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one unnamed military source.[3] The L.A. Times retracted an article that implicated Sean "Diddy" Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur.[4] The original article was based on documents and a large assortment of unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that "[n]one of the sources was named."[5]
After the embarrassment, a news organization will often "clamp down" on the guidelines for using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down. One study found that large newspapers' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004.[6]
Not on tape
Whether in a formal, sit-down interview setting or an impromptu meeting on the street, some sources request that all or part of the encounter not be captured in an audio or video recording ("tape"), but continue speaking to the reporter. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source, even repeating direct quotes (perhaps scribbled on a notepad or recalled from memory). This often shows up in broadcasts as "John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said..." or simply "a spokesman said...".
Some interview subjects are simply uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and make fools of themselves when the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering soundbite Before the actual term "sound bite" had been coined, Mark Twain described the concept as "a minimum of sound to a maximum of sense." It is characterized by a short phrase or sentence that deftly captures the essence of what the speaker is trying to say. Such key moments in dialogue stand out better in the audience's memory and or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations Public relations is the practice of managing the flow of information between an organization and its publics. Public relations gains an organization or individual exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. Because public relations places exposure in credible third-party outlets, officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being on the air themselves, will blunt the impact of their words[citation needed]. The audience need not see or hear them being uncomfortable (if they have unpleasant news), and not being on air also allows them to be anonymous or identified only by title.
Attribution
In journalism Attribution is the identification of the source of reported information. Journalists' ethical codes Journalism ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and of good practice as applicable to the specific challenges faced by professional journalists. Historically and currently, this subset of media ethics is widely known to journalists as their professional "code of ethics" or the "canons of journalism." The basic normally address the issue of attribution, which is sensitive because in the course of their work journalists may receive information from sources who wish to remain anonymous. In investigative journalism Investigative journalism is a type of reporting in which reporters deeply investigate a topic of interest, often involving crime, political corruption, or some other scandal important news stories often depend on such information. For example, the Watergate The Watergate scandal was an American political scandal during the presidency of Richard Nixon that resulted in the indictment and conviction of several of Nixon's closest advisors, and ultimately in the resignation of the President himself, on August 9, 1974 scandal that led to the downfall of US president Richard Nixon was in part exposed by information revealed by an anonymous source ("Deep Throat") to investigative reporters Bob Woodward Robert Upshur "Bob" Woodward is regarded as one of America's preeminent investigative reporters and non-fiction authors. He has worked for The Washington Post since 1971 as a reporter, and is currently an associate editor of the Post. While a young reporter for The Washington Post in 1972, Woodward was teamed up with Carl Bernstein; the and Carl Bernstein Carl Bernstein (born February 14, 1944) is an American journalist who, as a reporter for The Washington Post along with Bob Woodward, broke the story of the Watergate break-in and consequently helped bring about the resignation of United States President Richard Nixon. For his role in breaking the scandal, Bernstein received many awards; his work.
Ethics
Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing journalists in many democracies [1] [2] [3]. In some jurisdictions journalists can be compelled by law to identify their sources[citation needed], and journalists can and have been jailed for upholding this principle.
There are several reasons to protect confidential sources:
- In some cases serious harm might befall the source if their identity is uncovered.
- The willingness of other potential sources to share information with reporters may be eroded if confidential sources are identified.
- The public perception of journalistic integrity is damaged when assurances about confidentiality are breached.
- The so-called "chilling effect," which serves to dissuade sources in the future from stepping forward with unknown information for fear of reprimand or retaliation.
"Speaking terms"
There are several categories of "speaking terms" (agreements concerning attribution) that cover information conveyed in conversations with journalists. In the UK the following conventions are generally accepted:
- "On-the-record": all that is said can be quoted and attributed.
- "Unattributable": what is said can be reported but not attributed.
- "Off-the-record": the information is provided to inform a decision or provide a confidential explanation, not for publication.
However, confusion over the precise meaning of "unattributable" and "off-the-record" has led to more detailed formulations:
- "Chatham House Rule(s)": so called after Chatham House (the Royal Institute of International Affairs) which first introduced the rule in 1927, now in widespread use:
- "When a meeting, or part thereof, is held under the Chatham House Rule, participants are free to use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s), nor that of any other participant, may be revealed."
- "Lobby Terms"[4]: in the UK The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with accredited journalists are allowed in to the otherwise restricted Members' Lobby on the basis that information received there is never attributed and events there are not reported. "Lobby terms" are agreed to extend this arrangement to cover discussions that take place elsewhere.
- "Not for attribution" (as described by the Canadian Association of Journalists). The comments may be quoted directly, but the source may only be identified in general terms (e.g., "a government insider"). In practice such general descriptions may be agreed with the interviewee.
- "On background" (Canadian Association of Journalists). The thrust of the briefing may be reported (and the source characterized in general terms as above) but direct quotes may not be used.
- "Deep background" This term is used in the U.S., though not consistently. Most journalists would understand "deep background" to mean that the information may not be included in the article but is used by the journalist to enhance his or her view of the subject matter, or to act as a guide to other leads or sources. Most deep background information is confirmed elsewhere before being reported.
Neologisms
Double Super Secret Background
Double Super Secret Background is a neologism A neologism ; from Greek νές (neo 'new' + logos 'word'); origins latin novus, nova, novum; sanskrit návah. is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. According to, often used humorously, referring to the journalistic concept of keeping a background source secret.
The phrase, coined by Time Magazine Time is an American newsmagazine. A European edition (Time Europe, formerly known as Time Atlantic) is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition (Time Asia) is based in Hong Kong. As of 2009, Time no longer publishes a Canadian advertiser edition. The South Pacific edition, reporter Matthew Cooper, gained notoriety in July 2005 2005 was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar during the Plame affair The phrase Plame Affair refers to the identification of Valerie Plame Wilson as a covert Central Intelligence Agency officer. Mrs. Wilson's relationship with the CIA was classified information. The disclosure was made in a newspaper column entitled "Mission to Niger" written by Robert Novak, and published on July 14, 2003. The phrase originally appeared in an e-mail of July 11 July 11 is the 192nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 173 days remaining until the end of the year, 2003 2003 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar from Cooper to his Time bureau chief, referring to a conversation with Karl Rove Karl Christian Rove was Senior Advisor and Deputy Chief of Staff to former President George W. Bush until his resignation on August 31, 2007. He has headed the Office of Political Affairs, the Office of Public Liaison, and the White House Office of Strategic Initiatives. Since leaving the White House, Rove has worked as a political analyst and. In compliance with a court order, the magazine released Mr. Cooper's notes, thus breaking the anonymity Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ανωνυμία, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymous typically refers to a person, and often means that the personal identity, or personally identifiable information of that person is not known of Mr. Rove.
Cooper stated[7] the phrase was "a play on a reference to the film Animal House National Lampoon's Animal House is a 1978 comedy film directed by John Landis. The screenplay was adapted by Douglas Kenney, Chris Miller and Harold Ramis from stories written by Miller and published in National Lampoon magazine based on his experiences in the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity at Dartmouth College, as well as Ramis's experiences in the, in which John Belushi John Adam Belushi was an American comedian, actor and musician, notable for his work on Saturday Night Live, National Lampoon's Animal House and The Blues Brothers. He is the older brother of Jim Belushi's wild Delta House fraternity is placed on Double Secret Probation."
See also
References
- ^ Poynter Online - Anonymous Sources
- ^ Anonymous Sources | American Journalism Review
- ^ Newsweek Retracts Guantanamo Story
- ^ Times retracts Shakur story - Los Angeles Times
- ^ 2theadvocate.com | Music | Combs denies '94 Tupac attack — Baton Rouge, LA
- ^ NY Times Advertisement
- ^ Reporter: Rove Told Him of Plame's CIA Tie
- McQuail, D. (1994) Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage.
- Shoemaker, P. and Reese, S.D. (1996) Mediating the Message. London: Longman.
External links
- Be clear about your source's biases and agendas, from the Project for Excellence in Journalism
- Viewers as Sources, from Newslab
Categories: Journalism sourcing
Macon Telegraph
Bob Steele, a journalism ethics scholar at The Poynter Institute in St. Petersburg, Fla., said competitive zeal, sloppiness in sourcing and the never ending ...
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